A Deep Dive into the French Conquest and Colonization of Indochina

Battambang Central Market, 1912

Cambodia, a country of majestic temples and a thousand-year-old culture, bears the indelible marks of a pivotal period in its history: French colonization within Indochina. To fully grasp the sociopolitical, economic, and cultural dynamics that shape contemporary Cambodia, it is essential to delve into the complexities of this era. The documentary series "L'Indochine" by Nota Bene offers valuable insight into this period, and this article aims to expand on its crucial aspects, weaving a detailed narrative from the conquest to the consolidation of colonial power.

The Genesis of an Imperial Ambition: France's First Steps in Southeast Asia

The French colonial adventure in Indochina was not a project that was carefully thought out from the beginning. It emerged from a complex combination of factors: economic ambitions, geopolitical rivalries with other European powers (notably Great Britain), and an ideology of a "civilizing mission" that justified interference in the affairs of distant nations.

The first concrete steps were taken in the mid-19th century. Under the reign of Napoleon III, a military intervention in 1858, officially motivated by the protection of Catholic missionaries persecuted by the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam, marked the starting point of the conquest. Cochinchina, the southern part of modern-day Vietnam, was the first to fall under French control. Saigon quickly became a strategic administrative and commercial center, a stepping stone for future expansion.

Faced with growing pressure from its neighbors, Vietnam and Siam (now Thailand), Cambodia found itself in a vulnerable position. King Norodom I, seeking a powerful protector to preserve the integrity of his kingdom, turned to France. The Treaty of Protectorate signed in 1863 officially placed Cambodia under French tutelage. While this helped prevent annexation by its immediate neighbors, it also paved the way for a growing French influence in the internal affairs of the Khmer kingdom.

The Emergence of the Indochinese Union: A Geopolitical Puzzle Under French Administration

The consolidation of French colonial power accelerated with the creation of the Indochinese Union in 1887, under the leadership of Governor-General Paul Doumer, an emblematic figure of colonial administration. This administrative entity brought together Cochinchina (with the status of a colony), the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin (central and northern Vietnam), as well as Cambodia. Laos was added later, in 1893, completing the territory of French Indochina.

This union was not a simple juxtaposition of territories. It aimed to streamline administration, facilitate large-scale economic exploitation, and assert France's power in the region. A general government, based in Hanoi, supervised the whole, while senior residents exercised more direct control over the protectorates, including in Cambodia.

The "Pearl of the Empire": Indochina Serving Metropolitan Interests

For France, Indochina quickly became an essential colony of exploitation, a "Pearl of the Empire" contributing significantly to the metropolitan economy. The vast plains of the Mekong Delta in Cochinchina were developed for intensive rice cultivation, supplying French markets and other colonies. Rubber plantations multiplied, particularly in Cochinchina and eastern Cambodia, meeting the growing demand of the nascent automobile industry. The coal mines of Tonkin provided a crucial source of energy.

This economic exploitation was accompanied by the establishment of infrastructures designed to facilitate the transport of raw materials and manufactured goods: railways, roads, and ports were developed, often at the cost of difficult working conditions for the local population. A tax system was put in place, favoring French interests and imposing considerable burdens on Indochinese peasants and artisans.

Colonial Ideology at Work: "Civilizing" and Dominating

The French colonial enterprise was not limited to economic exploitation and political control. It was also based on a "civilizing mission" ideology, a belief in the superiority of European culture and institutions and the necessity of bringing "progress" to peoples considered less advanced.

This ideology manifested itself through attempts at cultural assimilation, particularly through education. Schools were created, teaching the French language, French history, and republican values, with the goal of forming a local elite loyal to the metropolis. However, this educational effort remained selective and only benefited a minority of the population.

The First Sparks of Resistance: An Awakening National Sentiment

While French domination initially seemed unshakable, it quickly gave rise to forms of resistance, first discreet, then increasingly organized. Economic exploitation, social discrimination, and the denial of sovereignty fueled a nascent national sentiment.

In Cambodia, figures like Prince Sisowath Youtevong, a fervent defender of independence, emerged and helped awaken a national consciousness. Peasant movements, often violently repressed, expressed their discontent with colonial policies.

The Second World War: A Geopolitical Earthquake with Indochinese Consequences

The Second World War was a decisive turning point for French Indochina. The rapid defeat of France by Nazi Germany in 1940 dealt a severe blow to the prestige of the metropolis and created a power vacuum.

Japan, an expansionist power in Asia, took advantage of this situation to extend its influence. The Vichy government, collaborating with Germany, was forced to grant military concessions to Japan in Indochina. Although the French administration formally remained in place, real control of the territory gradually passed into the hands of the Japanese. This period was marked by an intensification of resource exploitation for the benefit of the Japanese war effort and increased repression of nationalist movements.

For Cambodia, the Japanese occupation meant a new form of domination, but it also allowed some nationalists to organize and gain visibility. The famine of 1945, a direct result of Japanese economic policies and the chaos caused by the war, had disastrous consequences for the Indochinese population, including in Cambodia, and exacerbated anti-colonial sentiment.

The Twilight of the Empire: From the First Indochina War to Independence

After Japan's surrender in August 1945, France attempted to restore its sovereignty over Indochina. However, the context had changed radically. Nationalist movements, galvanized by the war and inspired by the ideals of self-determination, were determined to achieve independence.

In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in September 1945, marking the beginning of an armed struggle against the return of the French: the First Indochina War (1946-1954). This bloody conflict significantly weakened France and had important repercussions on the other territories of Indochina.

In Cambodia, under the reign of King Norodom Sihanouk, the situation evolved differently. Sihanouk, a skilled political strategist, led an active diplomatic campaign to gain independence. Taking advantage of France's weaknesses and the favorable international context for decolonization, he succeeded in obtaining recognition of Cambodia's independence on November 9, 1953, without having to go through a large-scale war of liberation like in Vietnam.

The Ambivalent Legacy of Colonization: A Past That Is Always Present

The period of French colonization in Indochina, and in Cambodia in particular, left a deep and often ambivalent legacy. On an administrative level, the model of a centralized state and some legal structures find their roots in this era. The urban planning of Phnom Penh also bears the mark of colonial architecture.

On a cultural level, the influence of the French language remains perceptible, especially among the older elites. The Cambodian education system was partly modeled on the French system. However, this period was also marked by economic exploitation, the suppression of freedoms, and a loss of sovereignty that left lasting scars.

Understanding this period is therefore essential for deciphering present-day Cambodia, its relations with France and the world, and the challenges it faces. The history of French colonization is not simply a narrative of the past; it continues to shape the present and influence the future. By exploring this complex period, we can better appreciate the richness and resilience of the Cambodian people.